在《莫裡斯》中,大學生克萊夫-達勒姆宣布他愛上了同學莫裡斯-霍爾,而後者卻拒絕了他。後來克萊夫感謝莫裡斯,說:"大多數人都會把我報告給院長或警察"。在現實中,克萊夫的擔心是有根據的。在20世紀初,當E.M. Forster寫作《莫裡斯》時,同誌關係在英國是非法的。
然而,在歐洲,同性之間的關係並不總是非法的。雖然這種性行為被宗教團體譴責為不道德,但沒有民事法律禁止它們。在大不列顛,這種情況在16世紀開始發生變化,通過立法將同誌行為定為犯罪。在英王亨利八世(1491-1547年;1509-47年)統治時期,英國的《□□法》(1533年)將男性之間的性關係定為死刑。立法者指定了男性;女同性戀關係遠遠超出了人們的想象,以至於立法者懶得宣布其為非法。同性行為的死刑一直保留到1861年。1885年,一項修正案為男性之間的任何一種性關係設立了 "嚴重猥褻罪",這個定義比同性行為更具包容性。
福斯特就是在這種英國的法律和社會氛圍中長大的。1895年,福斯特16歲時,愛爾蘭作家奧斯卡-王爾德(1854-1900)在一次臭名昭著的審判中,因 "與其他男性有嚴重的猥褻行為 "而被判處兩年苦役監禁。這一判決對王爾德來說是艱難的,他在出獄後不久就去世了。這次審判似乎給福斯特留下了印象,他後來寫道,在他的小說中,隻有一個 "我可以而且可能處理的主題--男人對女人的愛,反之亦然"。
然而,1957年是英國接受同性戀的一個分水嶺。同性戀犯罪和□□委員會發布了《沃爾芬登報告》,該報告以委員會主席、英國教育家約翰-沃爾芬登(1906-85)命名。該報告建議在英國將同性戀非刑罪化,其建議是基於社會科學和心理分析的發現。但是,又過了10年,當1967年的《性犯罪法》將21歲以上男性之間的同性戀行為非刑事化時,一切都沒有改變。僅僅4年後,福斯特的《莫裡斯》就出版了,而且是追授的。
Composition, Publication, and Reception of Maurice
Maurice follows its title character through an uncertain relationship with a social equal, Clive Durham (actually of somewhat higher class standing), to a happy relationship with a working-class man, gamekeeper, Alec Scudder. The inspiration for this mixed-class, gay relationship is likely the relationship between socialist poet Edward Carpenter (1844–1929) and a younger working-class man, George Merrill (1866–1928). E.M. Forster was close friends with Carpenter, who advocated for such causes as women's rights, vegetarianism, and open homosexuality, the latter in such books as The Intermediate Sex (1908). As Forster reports in the Terminal Note of Maurice, he was profoundly affected when, during a visit to Carpenter's home, George Merrill touched Forster on the small of his back. Merrill's touch "seemed to go straight through the small of my back into my ideas," Forster wrote, and soon after he began writing Maurice.
However, Forster thought the novel was too controversial to be published in Britain in his day. Even after Forster's death in 1970, homosexuality was still controversial, both socially and legally. Forster's biographer Wendy Moffatt details how, months after Forster's death, the manuscript of Maurice was carefully hand delivered to British American author Christopher Isherwood (1904–86) in Los Angeles, for fear of running afoul of American laws about sending homosexual material through the mail.
When Maurice was finally published, it was not well received. Some reviewers focused on how dated the turn-of-the-century treatment of homosexuality seemed in the 1970s. Others speculated that sexual repression had been the key to Forster's artistry, now missing from this frank novel. Writing in The Observer, 20th-century British critic Philip Toynbee claimed Maurice was "novelettish, ill-written, humorless, and deeply embarrassing." Toynbee added that what made Forster's other novels good was that he did "not express his homosexual feelings directly." The headline of The New York Times review of Maurice stated the novel was "more important to the man [Forster] than to literature." However, in the years since its publication some scholars have declared it a thoughtful engagement with the issues of its day, and a reviewer in The Guardian wrote in 2013 that the novel's publication history had "something to say about a major debate of our times: the extent to which the bounds of privacy are being redrawn." A 1987 film adaptation also sparked renewed interest in the novel.
《莫裡斯》的創作、出版和接受情況
莫裡斯》講述了主人公通過與社會地位平等的克萊夫-達勒姆(實際上階級地位稍高)的不確定關係,與工人階級的守獵人亞曆克-斯卡德的幸福關係。這種混合階級的同性戀關係的靈感可能是社會主義詩人愛德華-卡彭特(1844-1929)和一個年輕的工人階級男子喬治-梅裡爾(1866-1928)之間的關係。E.M.福斯特是卡彭特的密友,他倡導婦女權利、素食主義和公開的同性戀等事業,後者在《中間性》(1908)等書中提到。正如福斯特在《莫裡斯的結束語》中所說,在一次訪問卡彭特家時,喬治-梅裡爾觸摸了福斯特的小腹,他受到了深刻的影響。梅裡爾的撫摸 "似乎直接穿過我的小背,進入我的思想",福斯特寫道,不久之後他就開始寫《莫裡斯》。
然而,福斯特認為這部小說太有爭議性,在他那個時代的英國無法出版。即使在福斯特1970年去世後,同性戀在社會上和法律上仍有爭議。福斯特的傳記作者溫迪-莫法特詳細介紹了在福斯特去世幾個月後,《莫裡斯》的手稿被小心翼翼地親手交給了在洛杉磯的英裔美國作家克裡斯托弗-伊舍伍德(1904-86),因為他害怕觸犯美國關於通過郵件發送同性戀材料的法律。
當《莫裡斯》最終出版時,它並沒有受到好評。一些評論家關注的是本世紀初對同性戀的處理在20世紀70年代顯得多麼過時。其他人則猜測,性壓抑是福斯特藝術的關鍵,現在卻在這部坦率的小說中消失了。20世紀的英國評論家菲利普-湯因比(Philip Toynbee)在《觀察家》雜誌上撰文稱,《莫裡斯》是 "虛構的,寫得不好,沒有幽默感,而且非常令人尷尬"。湯因比補充說,福斯特的其他小說之所以好,是因為他 "沒有直接表達他的同性戀情感"。《紐約時報》對《莫裡斯》的評論的標題是:這部小說 "對[福斯特]這個人來說比對文學更重要"。然而,在小說出版後的幾年裡,一些學者宣布它對當時的問題進行了深思熟慮的探討,《衛報》的一位評論員在2013年寫道,這部小說的出版史 "對我們這個時代的一場重大辯論有話要說:隱私的界限正在被重新劃定的程度"。1987年的一部改編電影也引發了人們對這部小說的新興趣。